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PAIN

(Hébr. lèkhèm, qui se trouve dans le nom de Bethléhem =maison du pain.)

Chez les Hébreux. le pain était la base même de l'alimentation : « manger le pain » était, en effet, synonyme de « prendre un repas » (Ge 31:54, Ex 2:20 18:12) ; nos versions donnent quelquefois une traduction équivalente (Jer 41:1 52:33, Lu 14:1). Le pain était fait soit de froment soit d'orge, et, dans les temps difficiles, d'épeautre et de millet (Eze 4:9).

Les paysans et les pauvres mangeaient habituellement du pain d'orge (Jug 7:13,2Ro 4:42, Jn 6:13), les riches du pain de froment. Une fois le grain criblé et vanné (voir Agriculture), il était pilé dans un mortier, ou bien, le plus souvent, broyé dans un moulin à deux meules, dont la supérieure, mobile, était maniée à bras ou tournée par un animal ou un esclave (No 11:8, De 24:6, Jug 9:53,2Sa 11:21, Job 41:15, Mt 18:6 24:41).

Il y avait trois qualités de farine : la guèrès ou grain broyé en semoule (Le 2:14,16) ; la qèmakh ou gruau ordinaire (No 5:15,2Ro 4:41) ; la sôleth ou fleur de farine (Ge 18:6, Ex 29 2-40,1Ro 4:22, Eze 16:13-19). On travaillait sans doute la pâte dans des sortes de pétrins ; mais ce mot traduit inexactement l'hébreu mich'èrèt de Ex 8:3 (Sg., 7:28), Ex 12:34 (VS., corbeille) et De 28:5-17 (VS. et Sg., huche) : il s'agit là d'un récipient où l'on déposait la pâte avant qu'elle fût levée. On la faisait lever en y incorporant un peu de pâte fermentée (voir Levain). Les matstsoth étaient des pains sans levain (Ge 19:3, Ex 12:39,1Sa 28:24).

Le pain avait la forme d'un disque, peu épais, de la grandeur d'une assiette : on l'appelait kikkar ; ce mot hébr., qui signifie cercle, n'est pas rendu littéralement dans les versions françaises (Ex 29:2 Jug 8:5,1Sa 2:36 10:3, Pr 6:26), et l'on disait : « un cercle de pain », comme on dit aujourd'hui « une miche de pain ».

On connaissait plusieurs genres de cuisson. Un premier procédé consistait à chauffer fortement des pierres plates (1Ro 19:6 ; voir Charbon) ou des plaques de fer (1Ch 9:31) sur lesquelles on déposait le pain, que l'on recouvrait, sans doute, de braises chaudes et qu'il fallait retourner pour en assurer la cuisson égale des deux côtés (Os 7:8). On usait aussi de fours portatifs, assez semblables à de grandes cruches de terre, à l'intérieur desquels on plaçait le pain à cuire. Il y avait enfin des fours fixes, à demi creusés dans le sol et plafonnés d'argile. A l'époque patriarcale, chaque mère de famille cuisait chaque jour le pain de la maisonnée ; ce fut toujours l'usage à la campagne (Ge 18:6, Le 26:26,1Sa 8:13 28:24, Mt 13:33).

Chaque maison avait sa huche (De 28:5,17) ou coffre à pain. A Jérusalem, il y eut, par la suite, des boulangeries de commerce (1Sa 8:13, Jer 37:21, Os 7:4-6). Pour la consommation, le pain n'était pas coupé, mais rompu (Mt 26:26).

Outre le pain, on confectionnait des gâteaux de toute espèce : (Ge 40:17, No 11:8,1Ro 14:3) gâteaux azymes, pétris à l'huile et cuits au four, à la poêle ou sur le gril (Ex 29:2, Le 2:4-7) ; galettes azymes arrosées d'huile (id.) ; beignets au miel (Ex 16:31) ; gâteaux aux raisins (2Sa 6:19,1Ch 16:3, Ca 2:5, Os 3:1, Esa 16:7). Voir Pains de proposition.

La valeur du pain comme denrée précieuse entre toutes était particulièrement comprise dans les pays d'Orient et aux anciennes époques où, faute de communications rapides, chaque village et chaque province dépendaient pour leur subsistance du succès de leurs propres récoltes : le pain est ainsi devenu l'emblème des conditions de la vie assurées par la Providence divine (Esa 55:10,2Co 9:10).

Force et soutien de l'homme (Ps 104:15, Ge 18:5, Esa 3:1), c'est l'aliment nécessaire (Sir 29:21), jour après jour, à renouveler constamment ; aussi Jésus résume-t-il nos prières pour les bienfaits matériels dans la demande : « Donne-nous aujourd'hui notre pain quotidien » (Mt 6:11, cf. Pr 30:8) ; il choisit comme exemple de prières la requête de l'enfant ou de l'ami pour avoir du pain (Lu 11:3,5 et suivant). Le pain et l'eau constituent le minimum nécessaire à l'existence (No 21:5,1Ro 13:8 18:4, Job 22:7, Eze 4:17 etc.).

Le pain en abondance représente la vie aisée, normale (Lu 15:17, cf. Ps 37:25, Jer 44:17), du reste assurée par le travail régulier (Pr 12:11 31:14). Peut-être faut-il interpréter dans ce sens le conseil imagé : « Jette ton pain à la surface des eaux, etc. » (Ec 11:1), soit qu'il s'agisse de confier aux navires le produit de son labeur et ses marchandises, en s'attendant à faire à leur retour de fructueux bénéfices, soit qu'il s'agisse de générosité, suivant le proverbe : un bienfait n'est jamais perdu. (cf. Lu 16:9)

La privation de pain constitue un des pires malheurs ; (Ps 102:10, La 4:4, Sir 34:25) quand l'Éternel « brise tout bâton de pain » (expression littérale dans Ps 105:16, Eze 4:16, Le 26:26), c'est le terrible fléau de la famine. Le fidèle croyant sait partager son pain avec l'affamé (Esa 58:7 Eze 18:7). Ce partage entre hôte et convive est le symbole même de l'hospitalité ; il serait injurieux, en acceptant d'être reçu, d'apporter soi-même son pain : d'où la défense de Jésus aux Douze d'en emporter dans leur tournée (Mr 6:8) ; c'est une abominable trahison que de se retourner contre celui dont on a mangé le pain (Ps 41:10, Jn 13:18) ; mais la vraie charité sait donner à manger même à l'ennemi, s'il a faim (Pr 25:21, Ro 12:20). Par là, diverses locutions hébraïques associent la nourriture aux sentiments et au caractère, en disant littéralement : le pain de la douleur (Ps 127:2, cf. Ps 42:4), le pain du deuil (Os 9:4), le pain de l'intelligence, que donne la sagesse (Sir 15:3) ; dans Sir 23:17, le pain désigne par euphémisme l'aliment dont se repaissent les passions déréglées.

Dans le ministère même de Jésus, le pain illustre la tragique opposition entre la matière et l'esprit, entre la foule et le Sauveur : sa première tentation, celle d'employer sa puissance à s'épargner les tourments de la faim (Mt 4:4), a été vaincue au nom du grand principe : « L'homme ne vivra pas seulement de pain, mais de toute parole qui sort de la bouche de Dieu » (De 8:3). Lorsque, par compassion pour les multitudes affamées, le Seigneur multiplie les pains (Mr 6:34 et suivants ; voir art. suiv.), il se heurte à leur recherche intéressée, à leur point de vue uniquement matériel, et il cherche à les élever de la « nourriture qui périt » à « celle qui subsiste jusque dans la vie éternelle » : (Jn 6:26 et suivant) il compare à la manne (voir ce mot) le « pain du ciel » (Jn 6:32), le « pain de Dieu » (Jn 6:33), le « pain de vie » --il l'est lui-même ! (Jn 6:35-48) ; dans ce « pain vivant descendu du ciel », il annonce le don de sa chair « pour la vie du monde » (Jn 6:51) ; toute cette grande page johannique est la proclamation anticipée de la communion en son corps et son sang qu'il enseignera aux Douze la veille de sa mort, en leur distribuant le pain et le vin, emblèmes de son sacrifice (1Co 11:23 et suivants). Ressuscité, ils le reconnaîtront à sa façon de rompre le pain (Lu 24:30,35). Désormais, leur union fraternelle comme leur union spirituelle avec leur divin Maître s'affirmera et se fortifiera dans leurs repas de disciples (voir Agape, Cène), rompant ensemble, en souvenir de lui, le pain (Ac 2:42,46 20:7,11,1Co 10:16 et suivant). Ch. K. et Jn L.

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      Genèse 18

      5 I will get a morsel of bread so you can refresh your heart. After that you may go your way, now that you have come to your servant." They said, "Very well, do as you have said."
      6 Abraham hurried into the tent to Sarah, and said, "Quickly prepare three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes."

      Genèse 19

      3 He urged them greatly, and they came in with him, and entered into his house. He made them a feast, and baked unleavened bread, and they ate.

      Genèse 31

      54 Jacob offered a sacrifice in the mountain, and called his relatives to eat bread. They ate bread, and stayed all night in the mountain.

      Genèse 40

      17 In the uppermost basket there was all kinds of baked food for Pharaoh, and the birds ate them out of the basket on my head."

      Exode 2

      20 He said to his daughters, "Where is he? Why is it that you have left the man? Call him, that he may eat bread."

      Exode 8

      3 and the river shall swarm with frogs, which shall go up and come into your house, and into your bedroom, and on your bed, and into the house of your servants, and on your people, and into your ovens, and into your kneading troughs:

      Exode 12

      34 The people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading troughs being bound up in their clothes on their shoulders.
      39 They baked unleavened cakes of the dough which they brought out of Egypt; for it wasn't leavened, because they were thrust out of Egypt, and couldn't wait, neither had they prepared for themselves any food.

      Exode 16

      31 The house of Israel called its name Manna, and it was like coriander seed, white; and its taste was like wafers with honey.

      Exode 18

      12 Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, took a burnt offering and sacrifices for God. Aaron came with all of the elders of Israel, to eat bread with Moses' father-in-law before God.

      Exode 29

      1 "This is the thing that you shall do to them to make them holy, to minister to me in the priest's office: take one young bull and two rams without blemish,
      2 unleavened bread, unleavened cakes mixed with oil, and unleavened wafers anointed with oil: you shall make them of fine wheat flour.
      3 You shall put them into one basket, and bring them in the basket, with the bull and the two rams.
      4 You shall bring Aaron and his sons to the door of the Tent of Meeting, and shall wash them with water.
      5 You shall take the garments, and put on Aaron the coat, the robe of the ephod, the ephod, and the breastplate, and clothe him with the skillfully woven band of the ephod;
      6 and you shall set the turban on his head, and put the holy crown on the turban.
      7 Then you shall take the anointing oil, and pour it on his head, and anoint him.
      8 You shall bring his sons, and put coats on them.
      9 You shall clothe them with belts, Aaron and his sons, and bind headbands on them: and they shall have the priesthood by a perpetual statute: and you shall consecrate Aaron and his sons.
      10 "You shall bring the bull before the Tent of Meeting: and Aaron and his sons shall lay their hands on the head of the bull.
      11 You shall kill the bull before Yahweh, at the door of the Tent of Meeting.
      12 You shall take of the blood of the bull, and put it on the horns of the altar with your finger; and you shall pour out all the blood at the base of the altar.
      13 You shall take all the fat that covers the innards, the cover of the liver, the two kidneys, and the fat that is on them, and burn them on the altar.
      14 But the flesh of the bull, and its skin, and its dung, you shall burn with fire outside of the camp: it is a sin offering.
      15 "You shall also take the one ram; and Aaron and his sons shall lay their hands on the head of the ram.
      16 You shall kill the ram, and you shall take its blood, and sprinkle it around on the altar.
      17 You shall cut the ram into its pieces, and wash its innards, and its legs, and put them with its pieces, and with its head.
      18 You shall burn the whole ram on the altar: it is a burnt offering to Yahweh; it is a pleasant aroma, an offering made by fire to Yahweh.
      19 "You shall take the other ram; and Aaron and his sons shall lay their hands on the head of the ram.
      20 Then you shall kill the ram, and take some of its blood, and put it on the tip of the right ear of Aaron, and on the tip of the right ear of his sons, and on the thumb of their right hand, and on the big toe of their right foot, and sprinkle the blood around on the altar.
      21 You shall take of the blood that is on the altar, and of the anointing oil, and sprinkle it on Aaron, and on his garments, and on his sons, and on the garments of his sons with him: and he shall be made holy, and his garments, and his sons, and his sons' garments with him.
      22 Also you shall take some of the ram's fat, the fat tail, the fat that covers the innards, the cover of the liver, the two kidneys, the fat that is on them, and the right thigh (for it is a ram of consecration),
      23 and one loaf of bread, one cake of oiled bread, and one wafer out of the basket of unleavened bread that is before Yahweh.
      24 You shall put all of this in Aaron's hands, and in his sons' hands, and shall wave them for a wave offering before Yahweh.
      25 You shall take them from their hands, and burn them on the altar on the burnt offering, for a pleasant aroma before Yahweh: it is an offering made by fire to Yahweh.
      26 "You shall take the breast of Aaron's ram of consecration, and wave it for a wave offering before Yahweh: and it shall be your portion.
      27 You shall sanctify the breast of the wave offering, and the thigh of the wave offering, which is waved, and which is heaved up, of the ram of consecration, even of that which is for Aaron, and of that which is for his sons:
      28 and it shall be for Aaron and his sons as their portion forever from the children of Israel; for it is a wave offering: and it shall be a wave offering from the children of Israel of the sacrifices of their peace offerings, even their wave offering to Yahweh.
      29 "The holy garments of Aaron shall be for his sons after him, to be anointed in them, and to be consecrated in them.
      30 Seven days shall the son who is priest in his place put them on, when he comes into the Tent of Meeting to minister in the holy place.
      31 "You shall take the ram of consecration, and boil its flesh in a holy place.
      32 Aaron and his sons shall eat the flesh of the ram, and the bread that is in the basket, at the door of the Tent of Meeting.
      33 They shall eat those things with which atonement was made, to consecrate and sanctify them: but a stranger shall not eat of it, because they are holy.
      34 If anything of the flesh of the consecration, or of the bread, remains to the morning, then you shall burn the remainder with fire: it shall not be eaten, because it is holy.
      35 "You shall do so to Aaron, and to his sons, according to all that I have commanded you. You shall consecrate them seven days.
      36 Every day you shall offer the bull of sin offering for atonement: and you shall cleanse the altar, when you make atonement for it; and you shall anoint it, to sanctify it.
      37 Seven days you shall make atonement for the altar, and sanctify it: and the altar shall be most holy; whatever touches the altar shall be holy.
      38 "Now this is that which you shall offer on the altar: two lambs a year old day by day continually.
      39 The one lamb you shall offer in the morning; and the other lamb you shall offer at evening:
      40 and with the one lamb a tenth part of an ephah of fine flour mixed with the fourth part of a hin of beaten oil, and the fourth part of a hin of wine for a drink offering.

      Lévitique 2

      4 "'When you offer an offering of a meal offering baked in the oven, it shall be unleavened cakes of fine flour mixed with oil, or unleavened wafers anointed with oil.
      5 If your offering is a meal offering of the griddle, it shall be of unleavened fine flour, mixed with oil.
      6 You shall cut it in pieces, and pour oil on it. It is a meal offering.
      7 If your offering is a meal offering of the pan, it shall be made of fine flour with oil.
      14 "'If you offer a meal offering of first fruits to Yahweh, you shall offer for the meal offering of your first fruits grain in the ear parched with fire, bruised grain of the fresh ear.
      16 The priest shall burn as its memorial, part of its bruised grain, and part of its oil, along with all its frankincense: it is an offering made by fire to Yahweh.

      Lévitique 26

      26 When I break your staff of bread, ten women shall bake your bread in one oven, and they shall deliver your bread again by weight: and you shall eat, and not be satisfied.

      Nombres 5

      2 "Command the children of Israel that they put out of the camp every leper, and everyone who has an issue, and whoever is unclean by the dead.
      15 then the man shall bring his wife to the priest, and shall bring her offering for her: the tenth part of an ephah of barley meal. He shall pour no oil on it, nor put frankincense on it, for it is a meal offering of jealousy, a meal offering of memorial, bringing iniquity to memory.

      Nombres 11

      1 The people were complaining in the ears of Yahweh. When Yahweh heard it, his anger was kindled; and Yahweh's fire burnt among them, and consumed some of the outskirts of the camp.
      8 The people went around, gathered it, and ground it in mills, or beat it in mortars, and boiled it in pots, and made cakes of it. Its taste was like the taste of fresh oil.

      Nombres 21

      1 The Canaanite, the king of Arad, who lived in the South, heard tell that Israel came by the way of Atharim; and he fought against Israel, and took some of them captive.
      5 The people spoke against God, and against Moses, "Why have you brought us up out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? For there is no bread, and there is no water; and our soul loathes this light bread."

      Juges 7

      2 Yahweh said to Gideon, "The people who are with you are too many for me to give the Midianites into their hand, lest Israel vaunt themselves against me, saying, 'My own hand has saved me.'
      13 When Gideon had come, behold, there was a man telling a dream to his fellow; and he said, "Behold, I dreamed a dream; and behold, a cake of barley bread tumbled into the camp of Midian, and came to the tent, and struck it so that it fell, and turned it upside down, so that the tent lay flat."

      Juges 8

      5 He said to the men of Succoth, "Please give loaves of bread to the people who follow me; for they are faint, and I am pursuing after Zebah and Zalmunna, the kings of Midian."

      Juges 9

      53 A certain woman cast an upper millstone on Abimelech's head, and broke his skull.

      1 Samuel 2

      36 It shall happen, that everyone who is left in your house shall come and bow down to him for a piece of silver and a loaf of bread, and shall say, "Please put me into one of the priests' offices, that I may eat a morsel of bread."'"

      1 Samuel 8

      13 He will take your daughters to be perfumers, and to be cooks, and to be bakers.

      1 Samuel 28

      24 The woman had a fattened calf in the house. She hurried and killed it; and she took flour, and kneaded it, and baked unleavened bread of it.

      2 Samuel 6

      19 He gave to all the people, even among the whole multitude of Israel, both to men and women, to everyone a portion of bread, dates, and raisins. So all the people departed everyone to his house.

      2 Samuel 11

      21 who struck Abimelech the son of Jerubbesheth? Didn't a woman cast an upper millstone on him from the wall, so that he died at Thebez? Why did you go so near the wall?' then you shall say, 'Your servant Uriah the Hittite is dead also.'"

      1 Chroniques 9

      31 Mattithiah, one of the Levites, who was the firstborn of Shallum the Korahite, had the office of trust over the things that were baked in pans.

      1 Chroniques 16

      3 He dealt to everyone of Israel, both man and woman, to every one a loaf of bread, and a portion of meat, and a cake of raisins.

      Job 22

      7 You haven't given water to the weary to drink, and you have withheld bread from the hungry.

      Job 41

      15 Strong scales are his pride, shut up together with a close seal.

      Psaumes 37

      25 I have been young, and now am old, yet I have not seen the righteous forsaken, nor his children begging for bread.

      Psaumes 41

      10 But you, Yahweh, have mercy on me, and raise me up, that I may repay them.

      Psaumes 42

      4 These things I remember, and pour out my soul within me, how I used to go with the crowd, and led them to God's house, with the voice of joy and praise, a multitude keeping a holy day.

      Psaumes 102

      10 Because of your indignation and your wrath, for you have taken me up, and thrown me away.

      Psaumes 104

      15 wine that makes glad the heart of man, oil to make his face to shine, and bread that strengthens man's heart.

      Psaumes 105

      16 He called for a famine on the land. He destroyed the food supplies.

      Psaumes 127

      2 It is vain for you to rise up early, to stay up late, eating the bread of toil; for he gives sleep to his loved ones.

      Proverbes 6

      26 For a prostitute reduces you to a piece of bread. The adulteress hunts for your precious life.

      Proverbes 12

      11 He who tills his land shall have plenty of bread, but he who chases fantasies is void of understanding.

      Proverbes 25

      21 If your enemy is hungry, give him food to eat. If he is thirsty, give him water to drink:

      Proverbes 30

      8 Remove far from me falsehood and lies. Give me neither poverty nor riches. Feed me with the food that is needful for me;

      Proverbes 31

      14 She is like the merchant ships. She brings her bread from afar.

      Ecclésiaste 11

      1 Cast your bread on the waters; for you shall find it after many days.

      Cantique 2

      5 Strengthen me with raisins, refresh me with apples; For I am faint with love.

      Esaïe 3

      1 For, behold, the Lord, Yahweh of Armies, takes away from Jerusalem and from Judah supply and support, the whole supply of bread, and the whole supply of water;

      Esaïe 16

      7 Therefore Moab will wail for Moab. Everyone will wail. You will mourn for the raisin cakes of Kir Hareseth, utterly stricken.

      Esaïe 55

      10 For as the rain comes down and the snow from the sky, and doesn't return there, but waters the earth, and makes it bring forth and bud, and gives seed to the sower and bread to the eater;

      Esaïe 58

      7 Isn't it to distribute your bread to the hungry, and that you bring the poor who are cast out to your house? When you see the naked, that you cover him; and that you not hide yourself from your own flesh?

      Jérémie 37

      21 Then Zedekiah the king commanded, and they committed Jeremiah into the court of the guard; and they gave him daily a loaf of bread out of the bakers' street, until all the bread in the city was spent. Thus Jeremiah remained in the court of the guard.

      Jérémie 41

      1 Now it happened in the seventh month, that Ishmael the son of Nethaniah, the son of Elishama, of the seed royal and one of the chief officers of the king, and ten men with him, came to Gedaliah the son of Ahikam to Mizpah; and there they ate bread together in Mizpah.

      Jérémie 44

      17 But we will certainly perform every word that is gone forth out of our mouth, to burn incense to the queen of the sky, and to pour out drink offerings to her, as we have done, we and our fathers, our kings and our princes, in the cities of Judah, and in the streets of Jerusalem; for then had we plenty of food, and were well, and saw no evil.

      Jérémie 52

      33 and changed his prison garments. Jehoiachin ate bread before him continually all the days of his life:

      Lamentations 4

      4 The tongue of the nursing child clings to the roof of his mouth for thirst: The young children ask bread, and no man breaks it to them.
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